Conservation Biology
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration
of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some form of fishing).
Although fully protected areas have well-documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass,
the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some
contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their